Translator
Tag Archives: Cancer
Testicular Cancer
Testicular Cancer
Cancer Type Testicular Cancer
Testicular Cancer Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
Testicular cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of one or both testicles. The testicles are 2 egg-shaped glands located inside the scrotum (a sac of loose skin that lies directly below the penis). The testicles are held within the scrotum by the spermatic cord, which also contains the vas deferens and vessels and nerves of the testicles. The testicles are the male sex glands and produce testosterone and sperm. Germ cells within the testicles produce immature sperm that travel through a network of tubules (tiny tubes) and larger tubes into the epididymis (a long coiled tube next to the testicles) where the sperm mature and are stored. Almost all testicular cancers start in the germ cells. The two main types of testicular germ cell tumors are seminomas and nonseminomas. These 2 types grow and spread differently and are treated differently. Nonseminomas tend to grow and spread more quickly than seminomas. Seminomas are more sensitive to radiation. A testicular tumor that contains both seminoma and nonseminoma cells is treated as a nonseminoma. Testicular cancer is the most common cancer in men 20 to 35 years old. Health history can affect the risk of developing testicular cancer. Anything that increases the chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Risk factors for testicular cancer include: Having had an undescended testicle. Having had abnormal development of the testicles. Having a personal or family history of testicular cancer. Having Klinefelter’s syndrome. Being white. Possible signs of testicular cancer include swelling or discomfort in the scrotum. These and other symptoms may be caused by testicular cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur: A painless lump or swelling in either testicle. A change in how the testicle feels. A dull ache in the lower abdomen or the groin. A sudden build-up of fluid in the scrotum. Pain or discomfort in a testicle or in the scrotum. Tests that examine the testicles and blood are used to detect (find) and diagnose testicular cancer. The following tests and procedures may be used: Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. The testicles will be examined to check for lumps, swelling, or pain. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken. Ultrasound: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. Serum tumor marker test: A procedure in which a sample of blood is examined to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs, tissues, or tumor cells in the body. Certain substances are linked to specific types of cancer when found in increased levels in the blood. These are called tumor markers. The following 3 tumor markers are used to detect testicular cancer: Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). Beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (â-hCG). Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Tumor marker levels are measured before radical inguinal orchiectomy and biopsy, to help diagnose testicular cancer. Radical inguinal orchiectomy and biopsy: A procedure to remove the entire testicle through an incision in the groin. A tissue sample from the testicle is then viewed under a microscope to check for cancer cells. (The surgeon does not cut through the scrotum into the testicle to remove a sample of tissue for biopsy, because if cancer is present, this procedure could cause it to spread into the scrotum and lymph nodes.) If cancer is found, the cell type (seminoma or nonseminoma) is determined in order to help plan treatment. Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following: Stage of the cancer (whether it is in or near the testicle or has spread to other places in the body, and blood levels of AFP, â-hCG, and LDH). Type of cancer. Size of the tumor. Number and size of retroperitoneal lymph nodes. Testicular cancer is often curable. Treatment for testicular cancer can cause infertility. Certain treatments for testicular cancer can cause infertility that may be permanent. Patients who may wish to have children should consider sperm banking before having treatment. Sperm banking is the process of freezing sperm and storing it for later use.
Small-Cell Lung Cancer
Small-Cell Lung Cancer
Cancer Type Small-Cell Lung Cancer
Small-Cell Lung Cancer Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
Small cell lung cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the lung. The lungs are a pair of cone-shaped breathing organs that are found within the chest. The lungs bring oxygen into the body when breathing in and take out carbon dioxide when breathing out. Each lung has sections called lobes. The left lung has two lobes. The right lung, which is slightly larger, has three. A thin membrane called the pleura surrounds the lungs. Two tubes called bronchi lead from the trachea (windpipe) to the right and left lungs. The bronchi are sometimes also involved in lung cancer. Small tubes called bronchioles and tiny air sacs called alveoli make up the inside of the lungs. There are two types of lung cancer: small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. This summary provides information on small cell lung cancer. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment for more information.) There are three types of small cell lung cancer. These three types include many different types of cells. The cancer cells of each type grow and spread in different ways. The types of small cell lung cancer are named for the kinds of cells found in the cancer and how the cells look when viewed under a microscope: Small cell carcinoma (oat cell cancer). Mixed small cell/large cell carcinoma. Combined small cell carcinoma. Smoking tobacco is the major risk factor for developing small cell lung cancer. Cigarette smoking is the most common cause of lung cancer. Risk factors for small cell lung cancer include: Smoking cigarettes, cigars, or pipes now or in the past. Being exposed to second hand smoke. Being exposed to asbestos or radon. Possible signs of small cell lung cancer include coughing, chest pain, and shortness of breath. These and other symptoms may be caused by small cell lung cancer or by other conditions. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur: A cough that doesn t go away. Shortness of breath. Chest pain that doesn t go away. Wheezing. Coughing up blood. Hoarseness. Swelling of the face and neck. Loss of appetite. Unexplained weight loss. Unusual tiredness. Tests and procedures that examine the lungs are used to detect (find) and diagnose small cell lung cancer. The following tests and procedures may be used: Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body. Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken. Sputum cytology: A microscope is used to check for cancer cells in the sputum (mucus coughed up from the lungs). Laboratory tests: Medical procedures that test samples of tissue, blood, urine, or other substances in the body. These tests help to diagnose disease, plan and check treatment, or monitor the disease over time. Bronchoscopy: A procedure to look inside the trachea and large airways in the lung for abnormal areas. A bronchoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted through the nose or mouth into the trachea and lungs. Tissue samples may be taken for biopsy. Fine needle aspiration biopsy: The removal of part of a lump, suspicious tissue, or fluid, using a thin needle. A pathologist views the tissue or fluid under a microscope to look for cancer cells. This procedure is also called a needle biopsy. Thoracentesis: Removal of fluid from the pleural cavity (the space between the lungs and chest wall) through a needle inserted between the ribs. Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following: The stage of the cancer (whether it is in the chest cavity only or has spread to other places in the body). The patient s gender and general health. The blood level of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), a substance found in the blood that may indicate cancer when the level is higher than normal. For most patients with small cell lung cancer, current treatments do not cure the cancer. If lung cancer is found, participation in one of the many clinical trials being done to improve treatment should be considered. Clinical trials are taking place in most parts of the country for patients with all stages of small cell lung cancer. Information about
Small Intestine Cancers
Small Intestine Cancers
Cancer Type Small Intestine Cancers
Small Intestine Cancers Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
Small intestine cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the small intestine. The small intestine is part of the body s digestive system, which also includes the esophagus, stomach, and large intestine. The digestive system removes and processes nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body. The small intestine is a long tube that connects the stomach to the large intestine. It folds many times to fit inside the abdomen. There are five types of small intestine cancer. The types of cancer found in the small intestine are adenocarcinoma, sarcoma, carcinoid tumors, gastrointestinal stromal tumor, and lymphoma. This summary discusses adenocarcinoma and leiomyosarcoma (a type of sarcoma). Adenocarcinoma starts in glandular cells in the lining of the small intestine and is the most common type of small intestine cancer. Most of these tumors occur in the part of the small intestine near the stomach. They may grow and block the intestine. Leiomyosarcoma starts in the smooth muscle cells of the small intestine. Most of these tumors occur in the part of the small intestine near the large intestine. Refer to the following PDQ summaries for more information on small intestine cancer: Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment Adult Non-Hodgkin s Lymphoma Treatment Childhood Non-Hodgkin s Lymphoma Treatment Gastrointestinal Carcinoid Tumor Treatment Diet and health history can affect the risk of developing small intestine cancer. Risk factors include the following: Eating a high-fat diet. Having Crohn’s disease. Having celiac disease. Having familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). Possible signs of small intestine cancer include abdominal pain and unexplained weight loss. These and other symptoms may be caused by small intestine cancer or by other conditions. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur: Pain or cramps in the middle of the abdomen. Weight loss with no known reason. A lump in the abdomen. Blood in the stool. Tests that examine the small intestine are used to detect (find), diagnose, and stage small intestine cancer. Procedures that create pictures of the small intestine and the area around it help diagnose small intestine cancer and show how far the cancer has spread. The process used to find out if cancer cells have spread within and around the small intestine is called staging. In order to plan treatment, it is important to know the type of small intestine cancer and whether the tumor can be removed by surgery. Tests and procedures to detect, diagnose, and stage small intestine cancer are usually done at the same time. The following tests and procedures may be used: Physical exam and history. An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken. Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that produces it. Liver function tests: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by the liver. A higher than normal amount of a substance can be a sign of liver disease that may be caused by small intestine cancer. Abdominal x-ray: An x-ray of the organs in the abdomen. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body. Barium enema: A series of x-rays of the lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract. A liquid that contains barium (a silver-white metallic compound) is put into the rectum. The barium coats the lower gastrointestinal tract and x-rays are taken. This procedure is also called a lower GI series. Enlarge Barium enema procedure. The patient lies on an x-ray table. Barium liquid is put into the rectum and flows through the colon. X-rays are taken to look for abnormal areas. Fecal occult blood test: A test to check stool (solid waste) for blood that can only be seen with a microscope. Small samples of stool are placed on special cards and returned to the doctor or laboratory for testing. Upper endoscopy: A procedure to look at the inside of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum (first part of the small intestine, near the stomach). An endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted through the mouth and into the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. Tissue samples may be taken for biopsy. Upper GI series with small bowel follow-through: A series of x-rays of the esophagus, stomach, and small bowel. The patient drinks a liquid that contains barium (a silver-white metallic compound). The liquid coats the esophagus, stomach, and small bowel. X-rays are taken at different times as the barium travels through the upper GI tract and small bowel. Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope to check for signs of cancer. This may be done during the endoscopy. The sample is checked by a pathologist to see if it contains cancer cells. CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography. Lymph node biopsy: The removal of all or part of a lymph node. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells. Laparotomy: A surgical procedure in which an incision (cut) is made in the wall of the abdomen to check the inside of the abdomen for signs of disease. The size of the incision depends on the reason the laparotomy is being done. Sometimes organs are removed or tissue samples are taken for biopsy. Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following: The type of small intestine cancer. Whether the cancer has spread to other places in the body. Whether the cancer can be completely removed by surgery. Whether the cancer is newly diagnosed or has recurred.
Rhabdomyosarcoma
Rhabdomyosarcoma
Cancer Type Rhabdomyosarcoma
Rhabdomyosarcoma Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
What is rhabdomyosarcoma? Rhabdomyosarcoma is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells begin growing in muscle tissue. Rhabdomyosarcoma is a type of a sarcoma, which means a cancer of the bone, soft tissues, or connective tissue (e.g., tendon or cartilage). Rhabdomyosarcoma begins in the soft tissues in a type of muscle called striated muscle. It can occur anywhere in the body. There are several types of sarcoma that are found in children and young adults. The cancer cells must be looked at under a microscope to tell which type of sarcoma it is. Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common type of sarcoma found in the soft tissues of children. (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Adult Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment; Childhood Soft Tissue Sarcoma Treatment; and Ewing s Family of Tumors Treatment for more information.) If your child has symptoms of a sarcoma, your child s doctor may order x-rays and other tests. Your child s doctor may also cut out a small piece of tissue and have it looked at under the microscope to see if there are any cancer cells. This is called a biopsy. Your child s chance of recovery (prognosis) and choice of treatment depend on where the cancer is located, how far it has spread, how the cells look under the microscope (histology), the type of therapy administered, and how much of the cancer can be removed by surgery.
Retinoblastoma
Retinoblastoma
Cancer Type Retinoblastoma
Retinoblastoma Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
What is retinoblastoma? Retinoblastoma is a malignant (cancerous) tumor of the retina. The retina is the thin nerve tissue that lines the back of the eye that senses light and forms images. Although retinoblastoma may occur at any age, it most often occurs in younger children, usually before the age of 5 years. The tumor may be in one eye only or in both eyes. Retinoblastoma is usually confined to the eye and does not spread to nearby tissue or other parts of the body. Your child s prognosis (chance of recovery and retaining sight) and choice of treatment depend on the extent of the disease within and beyond the eye. This disease is caused by mutations in a gene called the Retinoblastoma-1 (RB1) gene. These mutations are either inherited (passed from the parents to the children) or new (not passed from the parents to the children) mutations. Some new mutations may become “inherited” (the new mutation is passed from the parents to the children). Tumors caused by inherited mutations are called hereditary retinoblastomas. Tumors caused by new mutations are called sporadic retinoblastomas. Hereditary retinoblastomas may form in one or both eyes, and they are generally found in younger children. Most retinoblastomas that form in only one eye are not hereditary, and they are found more often in older children. When tumors form in both eyes, the disease is almost always hereditary. Because of the hereditary factor, patients and their brothers and sisters should have periodic examinations, including genetic counseling, to determine their risk for developing the disease. A child who has hereditary retinoblastoma may also be at risk of developing a tumor in the brain while they are being treated for the eye tumor. This is called trilateral retinoblastoma, and patients should be periodically monitored by the doctor for the possible development of this rare condition during and after treatment. If your child has retinoblastoma, particularly the hereditary type, there is also an increased chance that he or she may develop other types of cancer in later years. Parents may therefore decide to continue taking their child for medical check-ups even after the cancer has been treated.
Prostate Cancer
Prostate Cancer
Cancer Type Prostate Cancer
Prostate Cancer Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
Prostate cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the prostate. The prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system located just below the bladder (the organ that collects and empties urine) and in front of the rectum (the lower part of the intestine). It is about the size of a walnut and surrounds part of the urethra (the tube that empties urine from the bladder). The prostate gland produces fluid that makes up part of the semen. Prostate cancer is found mainly in older men. As men age, the prostate may get bigger and block the urethra or bladder. This may cause difficulty in urination or can interfere with sexual function. The condition is called benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and although it is not cancer, surgery may be needed to correct it. The symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia or of other problems in the prostate may be similar to symptoms for prostate cancer. Possible signs of prostate cancer include a weak flow of urine or frequent urination. These and other symptoms may be caused by prostate cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur: Weak or interrupted flow of urine. Frequent urination (especially at night). Difficulty urinating. Pain or burning during urination. Blood in the urine or semen. Nagging pain in the back, hips, or pelvis. Painful ejaculation. Tests that examine the prostate and blood are used to detect (find) and diagnose prostate cancer. The following tests and procedures may be used: Digital rectal exam (DRE): An exam of the rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum and feels the prostate through the rectal wall for lumps or abnormal areas. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test: A test that measures the level of PSA in the blood. PSA is a substance made by the prostate that may be found in an increased amount in the blood of men who have prostate cancer. PSA levels may also be high in men who have an infection or inflammation of the prostate or BPH (an enlarged, but noncancerous, prostate). Transrectal ultrasound: A procedure in which an endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted into the rectum to check the prostate. The endoscope is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. Transrectal ultrasound may be used during a biopsy procedure. Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist. The pathologist will examine the biopsy sample to check for cancer cells and determine the Gleason score. The Gleason score ranges from 2-10 and describes how likely it is that a tumor will spread. The lower the number, the less likely the tumor is to spread. There are 2 types of biopsy procedures used to diagnose prostate cancer: Transrectal biopsy: The removal of tissue from the prostate by inserting a thin needle through the rectum and into the prostate. This procedure is usually done using transrectal ultrasound to help guide the needle. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells. Transperineal biopsy: The removal of tissue from the prostate by inserting a thin needle through the skin between the scrotum and rectum and into the prostate. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells. Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following: The stage of the cancer (whether it affects part of the prostate, involves the whole prostate, or has spread to other places in the body). The patient s age and health. Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back). Prognosis also depends on the Gleason score and the level of PSA.
Pituitary Cancer
Pituitary Cancer
Cancer Type Pituitary Cancer
Pituitary Cancer Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
What are pituitary tumors? Pituitary tumors are tumors found in the pituitary gland, a small organ about the size of a pea in the center of the brain just above the back of the nose. The pituitary gland makes hormones that affect the growth and the functions of other glands in the body. Most pituitary tumors are benign. This means that they grow very slowly and do not spread to other parts of the body. Information about craniopharyngioma, another type pituitary tumor, can be found in another summary (refer to the PDQ summaries on Adult Brain Tumors Treatment and Childhood Brain Tumors Treatment for more information on craniopharyngioma). If a pituitary tumor is found, the pituitary gland may be making too many hormones. This can cause other problems in the body. Tumors that make hormones are called functioning tumors, while those that do not make hormones are called nonfunctioning tumors. Certain pituitary tumors can cause a disease called Cushing s disease, in which too many hormones called glucocorticoids are released into the bloodstream. This causes fat to build up in the face, back, and chest, and the arms and legs to become very thin. Other symptoms include too much sugar in the blood, weak muscles and bones, a flushed face, and high blood pressure. Other pituitary tumors can cause a condition called acromegaly. Acromegaly means that the hands, feet, and face are larger than normal; in very young people, the whole body may grow much larger than normal. Another type of pituitary tumor can cause the breasts to make milk, even though a woman may not be pregnant; periods may stop as well. A doctor should be seen if there are symptoms such as: Headaches. Trouble seeing. Nausea or vomiting. Any of the symptoms caused by too many hormones. If there are symptoms, a doctor may order laboratory tests to see what the hormone levels are in the blood. The doctor may also order an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan, which uses magnetic waves to make a picture of the inside of the brain. Other special x-rays may also be done. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and choice of treatment depend on the type of tumor, and the patient s age and general state of health.
Penile Cancer
Penile Cancer
Cancer Type Penile Cancer
Penile Cancer Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
What is cancer of the penis? Cancer of the penis, a rare kind of cancer in the United States, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found on the skin and in the tissues of the penis. Men who are not circumcised at birth may have a higher risk for getting cancer of the penis. A circumcision is an operation in which the doctor takes away part or all of the foreskin from the penis. The foreskin is the skin which covers the tip of the penis. A circumcision is done on many baby boys before they go home from the hospital. A doctor should be seen if there are any of the following problems: growths or sores on the penis, any unusual liquid coming from the penis (abnormal discharge), or bleeding. If there are symptoms of cancer, the doctor will examine the penis and feel for any lumps. If the penis doesn t look normal or if the doctor feels any lumps, a small sample of tissue (called a biopsy) will be cut from the penis and looked at under a microscope to see if there are any cancer cells. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and choice of treatment depend on the stage of the cancer (whether it is just in the penis or has spread to other places), and the patient s general state of health.
Parathyroid Cancer
Parathyroid Cancer
Cancer Type Parathyroid Cancer
Parathyroid Cancer Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
What is parathyroid cancer? Parathyroid cancer, a very rare cancer, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the tissues of the parathyroid gland. The parathyroid gland is at the base of the neck, near the thyroid gland. The parathyroid gland makes a hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH), or parathormone, which helps the body store and use calcium. Problems with the parathyroid gland are common and are usually not caused by cancer. The parathyroid gland may become overactive and make too much PTH, a condition called hyperparathyroidism. This causes too much calcium to be found in the blood. The extra PTH also takes calcium from the bones, which causes pain in the bones, kidney problems, and other types of problems. There are other conditions that can cause the parathyroid gland to make too much PTH. It is important for a doctor to determine what is causing the extra PTH. Very rarely, hyperparathyroidism is caused by cancer of the parathyroid gland, and too much PTH will be produced by the tumor. A rare inherited disorder of the parathyroid called familial isolated hyperparathyroidism may increase the risk of developing parathyroid cancer. A rare inherited disorder of the endocrine glands called multiple endocrine neoplasia 1 has also been linked with an increased risk of developing parathyroid cancer. A doctor should be seen if there are the following symptoms: bone pain, a lump in the neck, pain in the upper part of the back, weak muscles, difficulty speaking, or vomiting. If there are symptoms, the doctor will conduct a physical examination and feel for lumps in the throat. The doctor may also order blood tests and other tests to check for cancer or other types of tumors that may not be cancer (benign tumors). The chance of recovery (prognosis) depends on whether the cancer is just in the parathyroid gland or has spread to other parts of the body (stage) and the patient s general health.
Pancreatic Cancer
Pancreatic Cancer
Cancer Type Pancreatic Cancer
Pancreatic Cancer Information on Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prognosis, Screening and Imaging
Pancreatic cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the pancreas. The pancreas is a gland about 6 inches long that is shaped like a thin pear lying on its side. The wider end of the pancreas is called the head, the middle section is called the body, and the narrow end is called the tail. The pancreas lies behind the stomach and in front of the spine. The pancreas has two main jobs in the body: To produce juices that help digest (break down) food. To produce hormones, such as insulin and glucagon, that help control blood sugar levels. Both of these hormones help the body use and store the energy it gets from food. The digestive juices are produced by exocrine pancreas cells and the hormones are produced by endocrine pancreas cells. About 95% of pancreatic cancers begin in exocrine cells. This summary provides information on exocrine pancreatic cancer. Refer to the PDQ summary on Islet Cell Carcinoma (Endocrine Pancreas) Treatment for information on endocrine pancreatic cancer. Smoking and health history can affect the risk of developing pancreatic cancer. The following are possible risk factors for pancreatic cancer: Smoking. Long-standing diabetes. Chronic pancreatitis. Certain hereditary conditions, such as hereditary pancreatitis, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 syndrome, hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC; Lynch syndrome), von Hippel-Lindau syndrome, ataxia-telangiectasia, and the familial atypical multiple mole melanoma syndrome (FAMMM). Possible signs of pancreatic cancer include jaundice, pain, and weight loss. These and other symptoms may be caused by pancreatic cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur: Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes). Pain in the upper or middle abdomen and back. Unexplained weight loss. Loss of appetite. Fatigue. Pancreatic cancer is difficult to detect (find) and diagnose early. Pancreatic cancer is difficult to detect and diagnose for the following reasons: There aren t any noticeable signs or symptoms in the early stages of pancreatic cancer. The signs of pancreatic cancer, when present, are like the signs of many other illnesses. The pancreas is hidden behind other organs such as the stomach, small intestine, liver, gallbladder, spleen, and bile ducts. Tests that examine the pancreas are used to detect (find), diagnose, and stage pancreatic cancer. Pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed with tests and procedures that produce pictures of the pancreas and the area around it. The process used to find out if cancer cells have spread within and around the pancreas is called staging. Tests and procedures to detect, diagnose, and stage pancreatic cancer are usually done at the same time. In order to plan treatment, it is important to know the stage of the disease and whether or not the pancreatic cancer can be removed by surgery. The following tests and procedures may be used: Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body. Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken. CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography. A spiral or helical CT scan makes a series of very detailed pictures of areas inside the body using an x-ray machine that scans the body in a spiral path. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI). PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radionuclide glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS): A procedure in which an endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted into the body. The endoscope is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. This procedure is also called endosonography. Laparoscopy: A surgical procedure to look at the organs inside the abdomen to check for signs of disease. Small incisions (cuts) are made in the wall of the abdomen and a laparoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted into one of the incisions. Other instruments may be inserted through the same or other incisions to perform procedures such as removing organs or taking tissue samples for biopsy. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): A procedure used to x-ray the ducts (tubes) that carry bile from the liver to the gallbladder and from the gallbladder to the small intestine. Sometimes pancreatic cancer causes these ducts to narrow and block or slow the flow of bile, causing jaundice. An endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is passed through the mouth, esophagus, and stomach into the first part of the small intestine. A catheter (a smaller tube) is then inserted through the endoscope into the pancreatic ducts. A dye is injected through the catheter into the ducts and an x-ray is taken. If the ducts are blocked by a tumor, a fine tube may be inserted into the duct to unblock it. This tube (or stent) may be left in place to keep the duct open. Tissue samples may also be taken. Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC): A procedure used to x-ray the liver and bile ducts. A thin needle is inserted through the skin below the ribs and into the liver. Dye is injected into the liver or bile ducts and an x-ray is taken. If a blockage is found, a thin, flexible tube called a stent is sometimes left in the liver to drain bile into the small intestine or a collection bag outside the body. This test is done only if ERCP cannot be done. Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. There are several ways to do a biopsy for pancreatic cancer. A fine needle may be inserted into the pancreas during an x-ray or ultrasound to remove cells. Tissue may also be removed during a laparoscopy (a surgical incision made in the wall of the abdomen). Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following: Whether or not the tumor can be removed by surgery. The stage of the cancer (the size of the tumor and whether the cancer has spread outside the pancreas to nearby tissues or lymph nodes or to other places in the body). The patient s general health. Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back). Pancreatic cancer can be controlled only if it is found before it has spread, when it can be removed by surgery. If the cancer has spread, palliative treatment can improve the patient’s quality of life by controlling the symptoms and complications of this disease. Taking part in one of the clinical trials being done to improve treatment should be considered. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.